The Romans, who did not enjoy the messy process of infusing and straining scented oils, imported most of theirs from Egypt. Men and women alike literally bathed in fragrance. So prevalent was the use of scent that Romans affectionately called their sweethearts "my myrrh, my cinnamon," just as today we call our loved ones "honey."
The Greeks were especially attracted to the use of scented oils. In fact, Hippocrates recommended the use of body oils in the bath. In Athens, proprietors of unguentarii shops sold marjoram, lily, thyme, sage, anise, rose and iris infused in oil and thickened with beeswax. They packaged their unguents (from a word meaning to smear or annoint) in small, elaborately decorated ceramic pots, as they still do today. Greek men and women anointed their bodies for both personal enhancement and sensuality. The men used a different scented oil, chosen for its particular attributes, for each part of their body. Most of the oils they used, such as mint for the arms, were warm and stimulating.
Oils were also used to massage tight muscles. Athletes in India, on the Mediterranean island of Crete and later in Greece and Rome, had specially prepared oils rubbed into their muscles before and often after participating in their athletic games.
East Indian Tantric practice turned women into veritable garden of earthly delights. They anointed themselves with jasmine on their hands, patchouli on the neck and cheeks, amber on their breasts, spikenard in the hair, musk on the abdomen, sandalwood on the thighs and saffron on their feet. Men, however, applied only sandalwood to their own bodies.
The daily bathing ritual in Indian required the application of sesame oils scented with jasmine, coriander, cardamom, basil, costus, pandanus, agarwood, pine, saffron, champac and clove. Ancient verdic religious and medical books gave insruction on balancing body temperature, temperament and digestion with such aromas and some of their therapeutic uses were certainly passed on to the West.
In Egypt, everyone used body oils, from royalty to laborers. Builders constructing a burial site went on strike in the twelfth century B.C.E. not just because the food was bad, but even worse, they complained, "We have no ointment." They depended upon the oils to ease sore muscles after a day of hauling and carving huge stones and to protect their skin from the intense Egyptian sun.
Throughout Americas, massage with scented oils was also used as therapy and was often the first treatment given. One massage oil prepared by the Incas contained valerian and other relaxing herbs that were thickened with seaweed. The Aztecs massaged the sick with scented ointments in their sweat lodges.
Wednesday, September 2, 2009
Let him smell the rose...
Since ancient times, the wealthy and powerful have been able to drown themselves in fragrance. In fact, one unfortunate Roman literally did. He was asphyxiated when the carved ivory ceiling panels in Emperor Nero's dining room slid aside to shower guests, who reclined on floor pillows, with hundreds of pounds of fresh rose petals. In general, wealthy Romans so over-indulged themselves in fragrance that the ruler Leptadeni, in 188 B.C.E, issued an edict forbidding such foolish access.
The Roman population paid little heed to the fragrance prohibition, and demand for incense only increased. By the first century C.E., Romans were burning 2,800 tons of imported frankincense and 550 tons of myrrh-both herbs more costly than gold-each year. As a result, Emperor Augustus increased the number of trade ships sailing between Egypt and India fivefold, from twenty to a hundred.
Islamic culture was also rich in fragrance, using it extensively in medicine, cosmetics and confections. Rose water was mixed into the mortar used to build mosques and even the ground in paradise was said to emit the scent of musk and saffron. Mohammed himself was once a spice and aromatics merchant who traveled on camel caravans. He loved fragrance, especially rose, mentioning it frequently in his teachings: "Whoever would smell my scent, let him smell the rose."
The Roman population paid little heed to the fragrance prohibition, and demand for incense only increased. By the first century C.E., Romans were burning 2,800 tons of imported frankincense and 550 tons of myrrh-both herbs more costly than gold-each year. As a result, Emperor Augustus increased the number of trade ships sailing between Egypt and India fivefold, from twenty to a hundred.
Islamic culture was also rich in fragrance, using it extensively in medicine, cosmetics and confections. Rose water was mixed into the mortar used to build mosques and even the ground in paradise was said to emit the scent of musk and saffron. Mohammed himself was once a spice and aromatics merchant who traveled on camel caravans. He loved fragrance, especially rose, mentioning it frequently in his teachings: "Whoever would smell my scent, let him smell the rose."
A World Market
Today, cities prosper and fail with the price of oil. So, too, did they in ancient times; however, it was fragrant oils and spices, not fuel oil, that sparked the growth of key cities along the avenues of commerce. With the introduction of camels as pack animals, the city of Alexandria developed into an active trading hub linking several trade routes, including one to Arabia, 2,000 miles away.
By the fourth century B.C.E., Babylon had a thriving market, trading in cedar of Lebanon, cypress, pine, fir resin, myrtle, calamus and juniper. Athens was famous for its hundreds of shops selling scented body oils and solid incense/perfumes. Phoenician merchants dealt in Chinese camphor, Indian cinnamon, black pepper and sandalwood. Africa, South Arabia and India supplied lemongrass, ginger and spikenard, the rhizome of which as an exotic fragrance. China imported jasmine-scented sesame oil from India and Persia, rose water via the Silk Route and eventually, Indonesia aromatics: cloves, gum benzoin, ginger, nutmeg and patchouli.
By the fourth century B.C.E., Babylon had a thriving market, trading in cedar of Lebanon, cypress, pine, fir resin, myrtle, calamus and juniper. Athens was famous for its hundreds of shops selling scented body oils and solid incense/perfumes. Phoenician merchants dealt in Chinese camphor, Indian cinnamon, black pepper and sandalwood. Africa, South Arabia and India supplied lemongrass, ginger and spikenard, the rhizome of which as an exotic fragrance. China imported jasmine-scented sesame oil from India and Persia, rose water via the Silk Route and eventually, Indonesia aromatics: cloves, gum benzoin, ginger, nutmeg and patchouli.
The fragrance trade
In ancient times, as now, commonly used essential oils such as frankincense, eucalyptus, ginger, patchouli, and rosewood came from the furthest reaches of the globe. These vital components of religious ceremonies, medicine, food, cosmetics and aphrodisiacs were in great demand and were more costly than precious metals and jewels. Although each region could produce clothing, shelter and food from the resources in its immediate territory, people of all nations craved rare, exotic odors that literally added spice to their lives and lent an air of mystery to their ceremony.
The demand for aromatic materials, coupled with their profitability, led to the establishment of long distance trade. Fortunately, seeds and herbs could be dried, gums rolled into beads and fragrances infused in oil or solid perfumes while retaining or even improving their properties. This made them extremely portable and relatively impervious to damage.
With trade and the passion for fragrance came adventure and intrigue. Fleets of ships crossed oceans, explorers risked their lives traveling across vast deserts, wars were ignited over land disputes and trade rights, kingdoms were conquered or lost and love bloomed-all in the pursuit of fragrance. As a result, the quest for fragrance was responsible for molding early world history more than any other single factor.
The demand for aromatic materials, coupled with their profitability, led to the establishment of long distance trade. Fortunately, seeds and herbs could be dried, gums rolled into beads and fragrances infused in oil or solid perfumes while retaining or even improving their properties. This made them extremely portable and relatively impervious to damage.
With trade and the passion for fragrance came adventure and intrigue. Fleets of ships crossed oceans, explorers risked their lives traveling across vast deserts, wars were ignited over land disputes and trade rights, kingdoms were conquered or lost and love bloomed-all in the pursuit of fragrance. As a result, the quest for fragrance was responsible for molding early world history more than any other single factor.
Tuesday, September 1, 2009
The fragrance circle
Just as we learn to give names to colors as children, we can also assign names to the various olfactory impressions. This produces an olfactory language with an extensive vocabulary that can also be scientifically underpinned. As described above, molecules with differing structures only fit on their intended receptors, thus
evoking a wide variety of stimuli. Molecules with similar structures can be combined into olfactory families, as shown in the Fragrance Circle. The fragrance families that are of importance in perfumery are grouped within the circle, while highly specific and unpleasant odors are located outside it. Smokey warns against fire, sour
against spoiled foods. As we near the center of the circle, the fragrance notes become more complex and are apparently perceived as being increasingly harmonious.
Top note
Serves as the first impression of a fragrance, is intended to arouse curiosity and vanishes quickly. The families positioned in the upper third of the circle are employed in composing the top note.
Heart note
Forms the actual fragrance character of the perfume and lasts for hours. It usually consists of floral notes that can be accentuated with the adjacent families.
Base note:
Serves as the foundation upon which the perfume is based, is intended to pleasantly underscore the fading scent, and can last up to a day. It is composed from the fragrance families positioned in the lower third of the circle.
evoking a wide variety of stimuli. Molecules with similar structures can be combined into olfactory families, as shown in the Fragrance Circle. The fragrance families that are of importance in perfumery are grouped within the circle, while highly specific and unpleasant odors are located outside it. Smokey warns against fire, sour
against spoiled foods. As we near the center of the circle, the fragrance notes become more complex and are apparently perceived as being increasingly harmonious.
Top note
Serves as the first impression of a fragrance, is intended to arouse curiosity and vanishes quickly. The families positioned in the upper third of the circle are employed in composing the top note.
Heart note
Forms the actual fragrance character of the perfume and lasts for hours. It usually consists of floral notes that can be accentuated with the adjacent families.
Base note:
Serves as the foundation upon which the perfume is based, is intended to pleasantly underscore the fading scent, and can last up to a day. It is composed from the fragrance families positioned in the lower third of the circle.
We smell with our brain...
Extending from the multitude of nerve cells in the olfactory mucous membrane are numerous appendages – processes – that are bundled in the upper nasal cavity in the
form of nerve fibers. These nerve fiber bundles extend through the
ethmoid plate, a bone behind the root of the nose, and into a part of the brain that is called the olfactory bulb. If subjected to strong shear forces such as those caused by a heavy blow, for example, this bone can slice through the bundle
of nerve fibers like a knife – resulting in a loss of the sense of smell.
In the olfactory bulb, each of these hundreds of nerve fibers, which serve as a continuation of the nerve cells with their olfactory cilia, terminates in an olfactory brain cell. Following pre-selection here, the stimuli are then advanced to portions of the midbrain and to the so-called olfactory brain.The olfactory brain was one of the earliest portions of the cerebrum to develop, which in turn is linked with the limbic system, the system that controls our feelings and emotions. Interestingly enough, nerve impulses do not travel in only one direction – this area also contains nerve cells that work in the opposite direction. This means that there
are a variety of ways in which a kind of feedback can modulate and modify the way a scent is perceived. Consequently, the expectations of the person who is smelling can exert a strong influence on the way a scent is experienced – yellow is associated with freshness, red with fruity sweetness. If this expectation is not fulfilled,
the scent is frequently rejected, even though it is not really unpleasant. So a product’s olfactory acceptance is also highly dependent upon the right kind of packaging!
The intensity of a scent, too, can influence its acceptance. This is because not every stimulus that is triggered by a molecule actually reaches the brain. The number of molecules that are necessary for this to happen (which is termed the olfactory threshold) depends upon the fragrance material in question. In highly concentrated form, fragrance materials are often perceived as pungent. In this case,
the nose would appear to be overstimulated – molecules are also deposited on the “wrong” receptors, thus triggering olfactory confusion, a “blurry” smell. In diluted
form, on the other hand, they seem delightfully floral or fruity! A floral
fragrance would have to be diluted to 2 to 5% to equal the strength of its natural counterpart. The sense of smell addresses both our emotions and our intellect. A scent’s stimuli are advanced to the right half of the brain, where it is recognized, while intellectual activity or the ability to associate a name occurs in the left half. This explains the phenomenon of being able to precisely identify a scent but not its name. Aromatherapy utilizes the emotional side of our sense of smell and employs essential oils to produce a calming effect, e.g. through lavender oil, or to stimulate the mind, e.g. with citrus oils. Scents can also be used as a source of subconscious manipulation. In Japan, for example, it is not infrequent for essential oils to be distributed through the air conditioning system in order to promote alertness and concentration on the job at hand or to help employees relax during their breaks.
form of nerve fibers. These nerve fiber bundles extend through the
ethmoid plate, a bone behind the root of the nose, and into a part of the brain that is called the olfactory bulb. If subjected to strong shear forces such as those caused by a heavy blow, for example, this bone can slice through the bundle
of nerve fibers like a knife – resulting in a loss of the sense of smell.
In the olfactory bulb, each of these hundreds of nerve fibers, which serve as a continuation of the nerve cells with their olfactory cilia, terminates in an olfactory brain cell. Following pre-selection here, the stimuli are then advanced to portions of the midbrain and to the so-called olfactory brain.The olfactory brain was one of the earliest portions of the cerebrum to develop, which in turn is linked with the limbic system, the system that controls our feelings and emotions. Interestingly enough, nerve impulses do not travel in only one direction – this area also contains nerve cells that work in the opposite direction. This means that there
are a variety of ways in which a kind of feedback can modulate and modify the way a scent is perceived. Consequently, the expectations of the person who is smelling can exert a strong influence on the way a scent is experienced – yellow is associated with freshness, red with fruity sweetness. If this expectation is not fulfilled,
the scent is frequently rejected, even though it is not really unpleasant. So a product’s olfactory acceptance is also highly dependent upon the right kind of packaging!
The intensity of a scent, too, can influence its acceptance. This is because not every stimulus that is triggered by a molecule actually reaches the brain. The number of molecules that are necessary for this to happen (which is termed the olfactory threshold) depends upon the fragrance material in question. In highly concentrated form, fragrance materials are often perceived as pungent. In this case,
the nose would appear to be overstimulated – molecules are also deposited on the “wrong” receptors, thus triggering olfactory confusion, a “blurry” smell. In diluted
form, on the other hand, they seem delightfully floral or fruity! A floral
fragrance would have to be diluted to 2 to 5% to equal the strength of its natural counterpart. The sense of smell addresses both our emotions and our intellect. A scent’s stimuli are advanced to the right half of the brain, where it is recognized, while intellectual activity or the ability to associate a name occurs in the left half. This explains the phenomenon of being able to precisely identify a scent but not its name. Aromatherapy utilizes the emotional side of our sense of smell and employs essential oils to produce a calming effect, e.g. through lavender oil, or to stimulate the mind, e.g. with citrus oils. Scents can also be used as a source of subconscious manipulation. In Japan, for example, it is not infrequent for essential oils to be distributed through the air conditioning system in order to promote alertness and concentration on the job at hand or to help employees relax during their breaks.
A Sense Most Taken For Granted
For a long time, science paid only little attention to this most mystical and emotional of our senses. In Greek philosophy, the sense of smell was disqualified as being imprecise and emotional. Only in recent decades has this sense been more thoroughly researched.
First of all, it is only possible to smell what reaches the nose together with the air we breath – i.e. the substances have to be an a gaseous state. When we smell a fragrance strip, for example, we do not smell what is on it but what is no longer on it, i.e. what has evaporated and can be inhaled. Located in the nose are two olfactory mucous membranes, each approximately four square centimeters in size, which are densely packed with nerve cells. Extending from these cells are numerous
plunge processes, which protrude into the nasal cavity like tiny little hairs. Contained on these cilia are differently shaped receptors. When the air we inhale carries a molecule to the nasal mucous membrane, the molecule attaches to a matching
receptor, like a peg in a hole. Both its geometric shape as well as its electrical charge, its polarity, play a role in this connection. When a molecule “docks” with a matching receptor, an electrical signal – a stimulus – is sent to the brain.
First of all, it is only possible to smell what reaches the nose together with the air we breath – i.e. the substances have to be an a gaseous state. When we smell a fragrance strip, for example, we do not smell what is on it but what is no longer on it, i.e. what has evaporated and can be inhaled. Located in the nose are two olfactory mucous membranes, each approximately four square centimeters in size, which are densely packed with nerve cells. Extending from these cells are numerous
plunge processes, which protrude into the nasal cavity like tiny little hairs. Contained on these cilia are differently shaped receptors. When the air we inhale carries a molecule to the nasal mucous membrane, the molecule attaches to a matching
receptor, like a peg in a hole. Both its geometric shape as well as its electrical charge, its polarity, play a role in this connection. When a molecule “docks” with a matching receptor, an electrical signal – a stimulus – is sent to the brain.
Professional sniffers
Perfumers are members of a very special guild in which professional knowledge, routine and craftsmanship are every bit as important as intuition and creativity. In spite of a five-year training curriculum, there is no official professional
profile for a perfumer. He – or increasingly she – has usually already completed an education. He or she may formerly have been a chemist, laboratory technician, pharmacist or simply someone from a truly unrelated profession who has found his or her way to the world of fragrance by chance. Those who become perfumers often first came into contact with this profession through their immediate surroundings: In their own family, as an employee of a perfume shop, a fragrance or cosmetics house. In addition to the training courses that are conducted in these companies to assure a supply of new blood, there are also independent schools of perfumery in France and the United States, for example. Although prior intellectual and professional training are desirable, what counts first and foremost in this profession are artistic talent and a pronounced ability to experience on a sensual plane. A perfumer does not have to be able to play a musical instrument, write poetry or paint, for example. Important traits, though, do include a curiosity about beauty, harmony, sounds, pictures, nature and – above all – people. Perfumers “compose” their creations, they take tiny bottles of ingredients from a set of shelves that is termed a “fragrance organ.” In describing perfumes, in fact, they speak of “accords.”
Although many people are able to recognize their favorite perfume or distinguish between the scent of a rose and a lily of the valley, they possess virtually none of the skills that characterize “professional sniffers.” Perfumers are able to compose their own creations from some 2,000 available fragrance ingredients. They are able to draw upon their memory to theoretically compose a perfume from the ingredients and “smell” the fundamental fragrance impression in their mind before ever reaching for the first ingredient to begin compounding the actual composition. After being written down on a sheet of paper, or on a computer today, the resulting formula is then physically compounded. Over the course of numerous attempts, a process that can last for days, weeks or even months, the perfumer refines this composition until it reflects his or her ideal. This ideal is usually dictated by the customer’s instructions – summarized in a so-called briefing – that precede the work of the perfumer. These instructions are often very narrowly defined: The price of the perfume oil, its subsequent flacon, advertising campaign and marketing strategy have already been stipulated, and the perfumer can only work within the narrow bounds of this framework. Sometimes, though, the assignment is very broad, and the briefing might call for only “a scent that is reminiscent of an autumn stroll in Tuscany.” It is precisely these “free” assignments that often serve as the nucleus for great perfume classics. Training that always “follows the nose” The training curriculum is divided into two parts: During a basic training period of approximately three years, trainees learn to know and differentiate between natural and synthetic fragrance substances, and become familiar with their chemical properties and olfactory qualities. They learn composition techniques, not just for what are called the fine fragrances but also for the broad field of utility fragrancing of cosmetics, hair care products, toiletries, household cleansers and innumerable chemical-technical products. A great deal of attention is naturally paid to educating the future perfumer’s sense of smell and olfactory memory. Even an experienced perfumer practices daily. Typically, two colleagues will prepare various smelling strips for one another; each must then identify the scents the other has prepared, and vice versa. As an orientation aid, many perfumers create mnemonics or associate images with the fragrances, such as: Iris = powder, patchouli = Oriental market, geranium = Egypt, jasmin = erotic. Because, as described above, only their olfactory memory,the ability to imagine entire fragrance complexes, to recall them from memory and to rearrange them in their mind, is what constitutes the true talent of a perfumer. The nose is simply the most important “inspection instrument” for the task. During the second half of their training, the fledgling perfumers have an opportunity to prove
themselves by working on actual customer projects. This often involves a stay in a foreign country, which is intended to strengthen their global understanding of their work, while also offering them a opportunity to get to know the regional peculiarities of the country or continent in question in order to broaden their
horizon for their future work.
profile for a perfumer. He – or increasingly she – has usually already completed an education. He or she may formerly have been a chemist, laboratory technician, pharmacist or simply someone from a truly unrelated profession who has found his or her way to the world of fragrance by chance. Those who become perfumers often first came into contact with this profession through their immediate surroundings: In their own family, as an employee of a perfume shop, a fragrance or cosmetics house. In addition to the training courses that are conducted in these companies to assure a supply of new blood, there are also independent schools of perfumery in France and the United States, for example. Although prior intellectual and professional training are desirable, what counts first and foremost in this profession are artistic talent and a pronounced ability to experience on a sensual plane. A perfumer does not have to be able to play a musical instrument, write poetry or paint, for example. Important traits, though, do include a curiosity about beauty, harmony, sounds, pictures, nature and – above all – people. Perfumers “compose” their creations, they take tiny bottles of ingredients from a set of shelves that is termed a “fragrance organ.” In describing perfumes, in fact, they speak of “accords.”
Although many people are able to recognize their favorite perfume or distinguish between the scent of a rose and a lily of the valley, they possess virtually none of the skills that characterize “professional sniffers.” Perfumers are able to compose their own creations from some 2,000 available fragrance ingredients. They are able to draw upon their memory to theoretically compose a perfume from the ingredients and “smell” the fundamental fragrance impression in their mind before ever reaching for the first ingredient to begin compounding the actual composition. After being written down on a sheet of paper, or on a computer today, the resulting formula is then physically compounded. Over the course of numerous attempts, a process that can last for days, weeks or even months, the perfumer refines this composition until it reflects his or her ideal. This ideal is usually dictated by the customer’s instructions – summarized in a so-called briefing – that precede the work of the perfumer. These instructions are often very narrowly defined: The price of the perfume oil, its subsequent flacon, advertising campaign and marketing strategy have already been stipulated, and the perfumer can only work within the narrow bounds of this framework. Sometimes, though, the assignment is very broad, and the briefing might call for only “a scent that is reminiscent of an autumn stroll in Tuscany.” It is precisely these “free” assignments that often serve as the nucleus for great perfume classics. Training that always “follows the nose” The training curriculum is divided into two parts: During a basic training period of approximately three years, trainees learn to know and differentiate between natural and synthetic fragrance substances, and become familiar with their chemical properties and olfactory qualities. They learn composition techniques, not just for what are called the fine fragrances but also for the broad field of utility fragrancing of cosmetics, hair care products, toiletries, household cleansers and innumerable chemical-technical products. A great deal of attention is naturally paid to educating the future perfumer’s sense of smell and olfactory memory. Even an experienced perfumer practices daily. Typically, two colleagues will prepare various smelling strips for one another; each must then identify the scents the other has prepared, and vice versa. As an orientation aid, many perfumers create mnemonics or associate images with the fragrances, such as: Iris = powder, patchouli = Oriental market, geranium = Egypt, jasmin = erotic. Because, as described above, only their olfactory memory,the ability to imagine entire fragrance complexes, to recall them from memory and to rearrange them in their mind, is what constitutes the true talent of a perfumer. The nose is simply the most important “inspection instrument” for the task. During the second half of their training, the fledgling perfumers have an opportunity to prove
themselves by working on actual customer projects. This often involves a stay in a foreign country, which is intended to strengthen their global understanding of their work, while also offering them a opportunity to get to know the regional peculiarities of the country or continent in question in order to broaden their
horizon for their future work.
Monday, August 31, 2009
Synthesis!
In those days, fragrance compositions consisted solely of natural ingredients, of resins, leaves, peels and blossoms that were treated in a variety of ways to capture their fragrant principles. One well-known technique was to place plant parts in alcohol
to produce so-called tinctures or infusions. If blossoms were placed in animal fat to produce perfumed pomades, the process was called “enfleurage.”
In the mid nineteenth century, modern perfumery evolved with the advent of modern chemistry. Innovative techniques of extraction and distillation supplied highly
fragrant plant extracts – it was even possible to isolate specific fragrance molecules from botanical isolates – and – even more exciting – it was possible to replicate
fragrance molecules in the laboratory – to synthesize them. One of the first molecules of kind was vanillin – in 1874, the principle of vanillin synthesis was patented, and chemists Haarmann and Reimer founded the company of the same name. Further important
molecules were coumarin (woodruff) and ionone (violet). In one fell swoop, the perfumer’s palette became incomparably richer – and for the first time perfumers were not only able to blend fragrances from nature, but also to replicate them, to interpret them, to translate them...
to produce so-called tinctures or infusions. If blossoms were placed in animal fat to produce perfumed pomades, the process was called “enfleurage.”
In the mid nineteenth century, modern perfumery evolved with the advent of modern chemistry. Innovative techniques of extraction and distillation supplied highly
fragrant plant extracts – it was even possible to isolate specific fragrance molecules from botanical isolates – and – even more exciting – it was possible to replicate
fragrance molecules in the laboratory – to synthesize them. One of the first molecules of kind was vanillin – in 1874, the principle of vanillin synthesis was patented, and chemists Haarmann and Reimer founded the company of the same name. Further important
molecules were coumarin (woodruff) and ionone (violet). In one fell swoop, the perfumer’s palette became incomparably richer – and for the first time perfumers were not only able to blend fragrances from nature, but also to replicate them, to interpret them, to translate them...
Sunday, August 30, 2009
From Grasse to Cologne
In France, the profession of perfumer & glove-maker emerged, whose center quickly became the city of Grasse in the south of the country – the capital of fragrant plant cultivation and leather-making. Brought to the French court by Catherine de Medici in the 16th century, perfume remained a royal fashion and was used all the more extravagantly. It was believed that water had the power to extract the life force from the body, and hygiene was exchanged for fragrance – the very first deodorant.
The situation was different in England under Oliver Cromwell – “Perfume is the work of the devil”, it was said, and was banned and even prohibited for an entire century.
The seventeenth century brought with it “Eau de Cologne” – “Cologne Water” – whose “recipe” had been brought to Germany by a young Italian named Farina. This refreshing blend of citrus oils, rosemary and alcohol went on to spread
throughout Europe – however not just as a fragrance, but also as a cure-all for both external and internal use. It would be left to Napoleon to finally clear up the situation – under his reign, a legal distinction was made between the professions of a “Perfumer” and a “Pharmacist.”
The situation was different in England under Oliver Cromwell – “Perfume is the work of the devil”, it was said, and was banned and even prohibited for an entire century.
The seventeenth century brought with it “Eau de Cologne” – “Cologne Water” – whose “recipe” had been brought to Germany by a young Italian named Farina. This refreshing blend of citrus oils, rosemary and alcohol went on to spread
throughout Europe – however not just as a fragrance, but also as a cure-all for both external and internal use. It would be left to Napoleon to finally clear up the situation – under his reign, a legal distinction was made between the professions of a “Perfumer” and a “Pharmacist.”
The anointed
The Egyptians already knew about perfume. Through their pictures and writings, the annals of ancient cultures suggest that fragrant substances from nature enjoyed a firm place in the daily lives of the Etruscans, Sumerians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and Chinese. Fragrance as a sacrificial offering to the gods – Frankincense, myrrh and
blossoms like jasmine were initially the exclusive domain of the high priests. It was thought that it was possible to communicate with the gods through the rising smoke produced by burning fragrant substances. Incense is still ceremoniously burned today in the Catholic Church, and this ritual presumably has the same roots. Per fumum – the Latin idiom meaning through smoke – is therefore the origin of the modern word Perfume. In the Old Testament, Exodus 30 contains a reference to a perfume recipe, in this case an anointing oil.
Yet it was the desire for beauty and care that brought fragrant resins and blossoms into daily life. A Roman fresco, for example, depicts a young maiden filling perfume into a little bottle. On an Egyptian wall panel from a grave in Thebes, it is possible to distinguish a lady smelling a perfume. On her head, she wears a typical perfume cone, which is slowly melted by the body’s heat. An Indian poem by Kalidasa contains
the following description:
In the summer, the beautiful ladies perfume their busts with the oil of sandalwood,
their hair with jasmin water,
their bodies with rose water,
to prepare themselves for love.
In Europe, the culture of fragrances first began to spread during the twelfth century. Amulets in the shape of a small apple, with gaps that could be individually opened and
filled, were in common use. Since the customary fragrant waxes were called “ambre”, these often highly artistic items of jewelry were called fragrance apples – pommes
d’ambre – pomander. Also popular were potpourris that were made from blossoms, fruits
and spices to mask bad odors in the home. Even utilitarian items were perfumed – like the leather gloves that fine ladies could hold under their sensitive noses when they had to cross the litter-strewn roads.
blossoms like jasmine were initially the exclusive domain of the high priests. It was thought that it was possible to communicate with the gods through the rising smoke produced by burning fragrant substances. Incense is still ceremoniously burned today in the Catholic Church, and this ritual presumably has the same roots. Per fumum – the Latin idiom meaning through smoke – is therefore the origin of the modern word Perfume. In the Old Testament, Exodus 30 contains a reference to a perfume recipe, in this case an anointing oil.
Yet it was the desire for beauty and care that brought fragrant resins and blossoms into daily life. A Roman fresco, for example, depicts a young maiden filling perfume into a little bottle. On an Egyptian wall panel from a grave in Thebes, it is possible to distinguish a lady smelling a perfume. On her head, she wears a typical perfume cone, which is slowly melted by the body’s heat. An Indian poem by Kalidasa contains
the following description:
In the summer, the beautiful ladies perfume their busts with the oil of sandalwood,
their hair with jasmin water,
their bodies with rose water,
to prepare themselves for love.
In Europe, the culture of fragrances first began to spread during the twelfth century. Amulets in the shape of a small apple, with gaps that could be individually opened and
filled, were in common use. Since the customary fragrant waxes were called “ambre”, these often highly artistic items of jewelry were called fragrance apples – pommes
d’ambre – pomander. Also popular were potpourris that were made from blossoms, fruits
and spices to mask bad odors in the home. Even utilitarian items were perfumed – like the leather gloves that fine ladies could hold under their sensitive noses when they had to cross the litter-strewn roads.
The air that we breathe
Of the five senses, the sense of smell is undoubtedly the one of which we are least aware – why? Fragrances are a difficult subject to talk about – so descriptive terms have to be borrowed from other sectors, such as “green” from the world of color or “fruity” from the field of taste. And yet fragrances have the magical ability
to enchant.
A rudimentary kind of olfactory system played a crucial role in the development of life: Water served as the medium that transported information to the first living
organisms, which they assimilated with the aid of a mechanism that can be termed a “sense of smell” in the broadest sense of the world. The life forms that later developed on land were forced to adapt: It was now the air they breathed, and not water, that supplied them with vital information.
So it was necessary to find a filtration system, i.e. an actual olfactory organ. It was with this first nose that the prehistoric quadrupeds were able to sniff vital information about enemies and mates, sources of nutrition and territorial borders. When the first human-like beings set out to conquer the world on two legs, though, they lost their “olfactory contact” with the ground – their eyes and ears provided them with faster and more effective information about friends, foes and prey. Yet right
down to this very day, our noses tell us much more than we realize:
– if we equate enemy with a warning odor, mating with eroticism and prey with nutrition…
to enchant.
A rudimentary kind of olfactory system played a crucial role in the development of life: Water served as the medium that transported information to the first living
organisms, which they assimilated with the aid of a mechanism that can be termed a “sense of smell” in the broadest sense of the world. The life forms that later developed on land were forced to adapt: It was now the air they breathed, and not water, that supplied them with vital information.
So it was necessary to find a filtration system, i.e. an actual olfactory organ. It was with this first nose that the prehistoric quadrupeds were able to sniff vital information about enemies and mates, sources of nutrition and territorial borders. When the first human-like beings set out to conquer the world on two legs, though, they lost their “olfactory contact” with the ground – their eyes and ears provided them with faster and more effective information about friends, foes and prey. Yet right
down to this very day, our noses tell us much more than we realize:
– if we equate enemy with a warning odor, mating with eroticism and prey with nutrition…
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